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 =Welcome to the Near North Montessori Junior High Science Page=

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Curriculum Overview
In junior high science, sustainability is our unifying theme. We use ecological principles (cycles, development, dynamic balance, flows, nested systems, and networks) as structural framework for our exploration of biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science. This systems-based approach to science focuses on appreciating the whole system in addition to its parts, the relationships between objects and organisms, and system cycles in addition to structures. A new addition to the science curriculum is the theme of alliance. Students are now referred to as scientist and they understand the responsibility that comes with that title. Students are challenged to seek, investigate and solve problems in their community and world as scientist and allies. Working in small groups and understanding their role in small groups is now a very important role in science. The alliance approach to science gives students a connection to their community and the rest of the world, creating a better idea of what it means to be a global citizen to each student. Through hands-on projects, activities and lab exercises, regular lessons and lectures, and field trips, students will discover the laws and theories that undergird life science, physical science, and earth sciences. A major aspect of this year's curriculum will be working on our off-site garden, Near North Farmessori. We will also be experimenting with using web-based applications to manage our classroom work. Coursework fits within a two-year curriculum, completed by each graduating student that accomplishes three goals. Students will 1) explore the fundamentals of science, 2) acquire an awareness of their role within the complex systems that influence their lives, and 3) develop the passion and skill needed to become lifelong learners in science.
 * Course Title:** 12-14 Science
 * Instructors:** Brian Corley and Courtney Peterson
 * Course Description:**


 * By the end of this program, students will:**
 * Have a working knowledge of the processes of scientific inquiry to investigate questions, conduct experiments, and solve problems.
 * Know how to analyze data, draw conclusions on evidence, and report results accurately in a variety of formats.
 * Demonstrate understanding of scientific processes and apply them to experiments: stating a purpose, developing a hypothesis, designing procedures, making observations, collecting data, controlling variables, and establishing relationships based on evidence and logical argument.
 * Be able to explain and model the interaction and interdependence of non-living and living components within ecosystems.
 * Have the ability to analyze qualitatively and quantitatively patterns of change in matter and energy.
 * Be able to analyze the properties, functions and formation of the earth’s component features.
 * Understand the implications of technology for societies, vocations, economies and the environment.
 * Have demonstrated civic responsibility by participating in school, home, and community conservation activities..
 * Know how to demonstrate lab safety techniques.
 * Understand principles of health promotion and treatment of illness and injury.
 * Promote and enhance health and well being through the use of effective communication and decision-making skills.
 * Know how to use web-based applications for producing research, documents, and presentations.

Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds Transfer of Energy || Motion Forces || Circuits Science and technology in society || Agriculture Sustainability Plant Biology || Stars Earth/Sun Relationship || Temperature and Humidity Climate || Geology Glaciers || Biomechanics Disease Genetics ||
 * Potential Topics of Study (Year One):**
 * Chemistry || Properties of Matter
 * Physics || Simple Machines
 * Electricity and Technology || Waves and Particles
 * Ecology || Ecosystems
 * Potential Topics of Study (Year Two):**
 * Astronomy || Our Solar System
 * Atmosphere and Weather || Air Pressure
 * Earth Science || Plate Tectonics
 * Health || Anatomy and Physiology



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[|Middle School Science] - Good resource for lesson plans, activity ideas, etc. [|PhET Science Simulations] - A bunch of Java simulations from the University of Colorado on middle school science concepts [|What is Science] - Good intro website which explains a big picture perspective of science. [|DNA Tube] - This site has a bunch of science videos searchable by tags and categories. [|Toys from Trash] - A bunch of Science demos and projects each with a youtube video and how-to page.



__Science Fair__
[|Make Projects] - Great list of ideas for kids to build for the science fair. [|Marshmallow Challenge] - Here is the [|TED talk] about the challenge. Could be a good activity to get us started on Maker Fair. An idea to emphasize the value of prototyping: Have half of the groups perform the challenge unchanged. The other half has to show you a free-standing structure every six minutes and if they don't have one, they need to take apart their structure and start over. In theory, the group that is forced to reevaluate every six minutes will have more success.

Resources: [|Boing Boing] [|Instructables] [|Lifehacker] [|Make Magazine] [|Tinkering School]

Projects:
[|Drawbot] a.k.a. Artbot [|Mossarium] [|Simple motor] [|Toys from Trash] - Indian toy inventor has how-to's for a lot of science demos and machines. [|Ted talk on turning trash into toys] - Arvind Gupta presents

__Digital Literacy__
[|Digital Literacy Unit Outline]

**Copyright:** [|Step-by-step guide] to teaching kids how to post, with attribution, [|Creative Commons] licensed images on their blog. [|FlickerCC] allows users to search only images that are licensed to share. [|Search Creative Commons] aggregates a couple of search engines and allows you to set the parameters for the type of copyrighted material you are looking for.

**Critical Thinking:** [|Crap Detection Excerpt] - Howard Rheingold talks about how to teach kids to be skeptical of online sources. [|easyWhois.net] - Domain-based research services. Look up who has registered a domain name. [|List of website that require critical thinking] - Organized in a sharetab. [|Here be Dragons] - 40 minute video on Critical thinking. About a third of the way into the movie the host presents a valuable list of red flags that should trigger your bs detector. At the end he lists a few books that focus on critical thinking including Carl Sagans //[|Demon Haunted World]// and Twain's //[|Huckleberry Finn]//

**Search:**
Google Search Tricks: Wonder Wheel and Related Searches [|Search Query Test] - Rearrange search terms as refrigerator magnets in this flash animation. [|Google in the Classroom] - binder of links to all sorts of tips and tricks for using Google in the Classroom. [|List of Search Tips] - English is not the writer's primary language but there are some good tips here. [|Google a day] - Google presents a daily search puzzle. This could be a great way to hone students' search skills.

**Staying Safe:**
[|Protecting Reputations Online in Plain English] Also see [|Secure Websites in Plain English] and [|Phishing in Plain English] Google's [|Digital Literacy Tour] - There are three lessons here: Detecting Lies and Staying True, Playing and Staying Safe Online, and Steering Clear of Cyber Tricks.

Agriculture
[|Grocery Store Wars] - Star Wars themed video about supermarket choices.

Animals
[|Smithsonian camera traps] - Could be used to show some cool animals in the wild footage.

Materials Economy
[|The Story of Stuff] - 20 minute video on the materials economy. Great overview of the hidden costs of our consumer culture.

Microscopy
[|Bugscope] - You mail the U. of Illinois your bugs and then schedule a time on the electron microscope. When your session arrives you log on and control the microscope via the web.

General Resources
[|Chemical Education Digital Library] - Looks to be more high-school level but a good resource for me. [|Countertop Chemistry] - List of labs and demos that involve everyday products and resources. [|Cooking Chemistry Videos] [|List of experiments and demos] - I'm slowly adding the experiments in by category.

[|mystery powder lab] - Good inquiry-based lab. There is some mystery to this one. Would be nice to add a story hook to this one to draw the kids in. Here is a [|recipe] that could work into the storyline, something like the kids need to figure out all of these unidentified powders so they can make breakfast.

[|Epidemiology lab] - Cool activity that involves tracking the source of "infectious disease."

[|Chemical reactions in a bag] - Baking soda and calcium chloride in a bag. Could be a demo or a lab. [|How to make a bomb bag] - Here is an [|alternate version] with ziplocs and paper towels.

[|Half-life M&Ms Lab] - Cool simulation of the half-life of isotopes. Involves eating candy.

[|Lake Nyos Story Prezi] [|Lake Nyos Demo] - YouTube of a demonstration where carbon dioxide gas is created and poured over candles. [|NatGeo] video of Lake Nyos Disaster

Leidenfrost effect - Mythbusters dip their fingers in [|molten lead] Popular Science blog post about dipping hands in [|liquid nitrogen]

[|Elephant Toothpaste Demo]

Acids and Bases
[|pH lab] - Test different materials using litmus paper, red cabbage juice, and pH paper. [|The pH factor] - Resource site on all things pH. [|Cabbage foam] - Add baking soda to pickled cabbage liquid and watch it foam and change color. Add vinegar and watch it change again.

Periodic Table
[|Five good resources for learning the periodic table] [|Really great interactive periodic table] - with photographs and little factoids about each element. [|Periodic Table of Videos] - A video for each element. [|Periodic Table of Comic Books] - Index of every time chemicals have appeared in comic books. [|interactive periodic table] - solid reference table. Click on each box to get a detailed inset about each element. [|Rotating 3D molecules] [|Harry Potter sings] Tom Lehrer's [|The Elements] They Might Be Giants sing [|Meet the Elements]

Properties of Matter
[|Dancing Raisins] - Raisins in carbonated liquids. See also Buoyancy, States of Matter.

States of Matter
[|Cracking Knuckles] - Gases dissolved in a sac in your knuckles are released when pressure is reduced in that knuckle, not unlike opening a carbonated soda. [|Dancing Raisins] - Raisins in carbonated liquids. See also Buoyancy, Density. Possible for use in a supersaturation lab: [|Hot Ice Part 1] [|Hot Ice Part 2] [|Video of boiling water to snow]

Temperature: link to [|PBS special on Absolute Zero] plus other related resources

__Physics__
[|Pendulum lab idea] [Different size washers] - Brian, take a look at this [|link]. Scroll down to comment #23 by Brian (perhaps this is you?). It looks like he tackled a similar activity but I like the favorite song addition. Let me know what you think. [|Speed Machines] Worksheet that introduces motion in terms of speed, distance and time
 * Properties and changes of properties in matter
 * Motions and forces
 * Transfer of energy

[|Physics Lab Layouts] [|-Simple Machines] [|-Newton's Laws]

[|Rocketry page from NASA] - We could build a PBL project from this page. Kids could build their own rockets and launch them and we could tie in all kinds of physics.

[|Slow motion bullet videos] - These are cool. You might be able to do something with them. Brian, check out [|this website] which links to some physics games. [|Cargo Bridge] is fun. We could couple it with an actual bridge building activity using popsicle sticks, string, glue, etc. See who can build a bridge that supports the most weight. [|Magic Pen] is really cool too.

[|Lecture on types of bridges and history] - boring, but could be a good reference for us when we do that bridge building activity. [|Bridge Building Activity Resources] - This activity has been a real winner so far. Be sure to order the kits ahead of time.

Inertia
[|Moving Candle Demo] - Candle flame moves back when you move candle forward, but when you put a jar over the candle, the flame moves forward when you slide the candle forward. Why? Inertia provides the answer in both cases.

Week 1: Motion -Describing and Measuring Motion

[|Indoor Lightning Generator] - I could set this up as a demo.
[|Water Analogy of Electricity] - Drawings of a common analogy used in teaching electricity. [|Electronics resources] - how LEDs, diodes, resistors, etc. work [|Copper Plating Lab] - No electricity. Good illustration of physical versus chemical change. [|Electroplating Lab] - Not the best, google it if you need more.

__Plant Biology__
Totally awesome downloadable [|tree of life graphic] - Need to print this out and get it up on the wall. I have to figure out how to print out a 54" poster.

**__Human Biology__**
[|Google Body]
 * __Anatomy__**

**__Cell Biology__** [|The Inner Life of a Cell] - A computer animation of what goes on in a cell. The video is then [|explained here] in highly technical language

[|Understanding Genetics] - Stanford School of Medicine Site
 * __Genetics__**

__Astronomy__
[|Celestia] - Downloadable program that is like Google Earth but for space. [|Real World Math: Space] - Uses Google Earth and Google Sky [|Scale of the Universe]

**Light**
[|How Your Bread is Buttered] - Measuring the speed of light with your microwave.

Sound
[|Comb Kazoo]

Graphing and Weather
[|Real World Math: Line Graphs] - Uses Google Earth [|Real World Math: Pictographs] - Uses Google Earth [|Real World Math: Typhoon PBL] - Uses Google Earth

Pressure and Temperature
[|Empty soda bottle demo]

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Inventory
6 black work tables 5 black lab tables 30 wooden chairs 1 folding chair 6 Mac computers with chargers 1 small brown open-backed shelf 1 black bookshelf 3 garbage cans 2 small teacher garbage cans 2 wooden 3-shelf bookshelves 2 metal file cabinets 2 teacher desks 1 black technology desk 1 speakers set (2 speakers and subwoofer) 6 wooden cabinets 1 white plastic storage shelf 1 metal storage cabinet 12 mini white boards 1 mini storage bin for minis 1 refrigerator 1 microscope 1 corrosive chemical storage cabinet 2 flammable chemical storage cabinets 1 printer/copy machine 2 teacher laptops (1 macbook, 1 Lenovo) 2 stools 15 microscopes (6 functional) 2 assorted human body anatomical models 1 large NexStar telescope 1 fire extinguisher 1 fire blanket

__Books__

Astronomy and Earth Science //Astronomy// //Astronomy Projects for Young Scientists// //Aurora Borealis: A Photo Memory// //Dictionary of Geological Terms// //An Inconvenient Truth// //Patterns in the Sky// //Rainbows, Halos, and Glories// //Universe Explained//

Biology //Animals// //The Evolution Book// //From the Beginning: The Story of Human Evolution// //Natural History//

Chemistry //Chemical Demonstrations 1, 2, and 3// //Chemistry for Every Kid// //Experiments in General Chemistry// //Eyewitness Books: Matter// //Hands-On Chemistry Activities// //Laboratory Waste Management// //Prudent Practices for Disposal of Chemicals from Laboratories// //Prudent Practices for Handling Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories// //Teaching General Chemistry// //Visualizing Chemistry//

Gardening/Permaculture //The Backyard Homestead// //Choice, Control, and Change// //Encyclopedia of Gardening// //Exploratorium Science Snackbook// //Farm to Table and Beyond// //Fields of Plenty// //The Forager's Harvest: Edible Wild Plants// //Four-Season Harvest// //French Fries and the Food System (2)// //Gardening Indoors// //Greenhouse Gardener's Companion// //Growing Food// //GrowLab// //How to Grow More Vegetables// //Hydroponic Tomatoes// //Introduction to Permaculture// //Permaculture// //The Permaculture Way// //Smart Permaculture Design// //Vegetable Gardener's Bible// //Vegetable Gardening for Illinois//

Health //An Atlas of Human Anatomy Vols. I and II// //Biology Discovery Activities Kit// //Brain Surgery for Beginners// //Cells: Building Blocks of Life// //Health America// //How to Survive Teaching Health// //Our Whole Lives Grades 7-9// //Teen Health Course 2//

Physics //Can You Feel the Force// //Physics for Every Kid//

Reference //175 More Science Experiments// //Dictionary// //Encyclopedia of Science// //McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms// //The New York Times Public Library Science Desk Reference (2)// //Science// //Scientific American Science Desk Reference// //Science Fun in Chicagoland// //Way Things Work//

Textbooks and Workbooks //An Atlas of Biodiversity (22)// //Holt-Rinehart-Winston Science Plus: Level Blue (12)// //Holt-Rinehart-Winston Science Plus: Level Green (13)// //Holt-Rinehart-Winston Science Plus: Level Red (13)// //McDougal Littell Earth Science (10) + resource books// //McDougal Littell Life Science (9) + resource books// //McDougal Littell Physical Science (11) + resource books// //Merrill Earth Science Workbook (22)// //Merrill Life Science Workbook (23)// //Merrill Physical Science Workbook (24)// //Science Explorer A-O (missing D)//

__Movies__ //An Inconvenient Truth// //Food, Inc.// //King Corn//

National Standards
NSES Science Content Standards
 * 1) Science as Inquiry
 * 2) Physical Science
 * 3) Life Science
 * 4) Earth and Space Science
 * 5) Science and Technology
 * 6) Science in Personal and Social Perspectives
 * 7) History and Nature of Science

AAAS Project 2061 Benchmarks 
 * 1) The Nature of Science
 * 2) The Nature of Mathematics
 * 3) The Nature of Technology
 * 4) The Physical Setting
 * 5) The Living Environment
 * 6) The Human Organism
 * 7) The Human Society
 * 8) The Designed World
 * 9) The Mathematical World
 * 10) Historical Perspectives
 * 11) Common Themes
 * 12) Habits of Mind

[|NSES Science Content Standards] Grades 5-8
 [|Content Standard A] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop  [|Content Standard B] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop an understanding of [|Content Standard C] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop an understanding of [|Content Standard D] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop an understanding of [|Content Standard E] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop  [|Content Standard F] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop an understanding of [|Content Standard G] As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop an understanding of
 * Science as Inquiry**
 * 1) Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
 * 2) Understandings about scientific inquiry.
 * //Students in grades 5-8 can begin to recognize the relationship between explanation and evidence.//
 * Physical Science**
 * 1) Properties and changes of properties of matter
 * 2) Motions and forces
 * 3) Transfer of energy
 * //In grades 5-8, students observe and measure characteristic properties, such as boiling points, melting points, solubility, and simple chemical changes of pure substances and use those properties to distinguish and separate one substance from another.//
 * Life Science**
 * 1) Structure and function in living systems
 * 2) Reproduction and heredity
 * 3) Regulation and behavior
 * 4) Populations and ecosystems
 * 5) Diversity and adaptations of organisms
 * Earth and Space Science**
 * 1) Structure of the earth system
 * 2) Earth's history
 * 3) Earth in the solar system
 * Science and Technology**
 * 1) Abilities of technological design
 * 2) Understandings about science and technology
 * //In the middle-school years, students' work with scientific investigations can be complemented by activities in which the purpose is to meet a human need, solve a human problem, or develop a product . . .//
 * Science in Personal and Social Perspectives**
 * 1) Personal health
 * 2) Populations, resources, and environments
 * 3) Natural hazards
 * 4) Risks and benefits
 * 5) Science and technology in society
 * //Although students in grades 5-8 have some awareness of global issues, teachers should challenge misconceptions, such as anything natural is not a pollutant, oceans are limitless resources, and humans are indestructible as a species.//
 * History and Nature of Science**
 * 1) Science as a human endeavor
 * 2) Nature of science
 * 3) History of science
 * //Students should understand the difference between scientific and other questions and what science and technology can reasonably contribute to society.//

Back to National Standards Table of Contents 

**1. The Nature of Science**
A. The Scientific Worldview B. Scientific Inquiry C. The Scientific Enterprise  A. [|The Scientific Worldview]  B. [|Scientific Inquiry]  C. [|The Scientific Enterprise]
 * When similar investigations give different results, the scientific challenge is to judge whether the differences are trivial or significant, and it often takes further studies to decide. 1A/M1a
 * Even with similar results, scientists may wait until an investigation has been repeated many times before accepting the results as correct. 1A/M1b
 * Scientific knowledge is subject to modification as new information challenges prevailing theories and as a new theory leads to looking at old observations in a new way. 1A/M2
 * Some scientific knowledge is very old and yet is still applicable today. 1A/M3
 * Some matters cannot be examined usefully in a scientific way. Among them are matters that by their nature cannot be tested against observations. 1A/M4ab*
 * Science can sometimes be used to inform ethical decisions by identifying the likely consequences of particular actions, but science cannot be used by itself to establish that an action is moral or immoral. 1A/M4c*
 * Scientists differ greatly in what phenomena they study and how they go about their work. 1B/M1a
 * Scientific investigations usually involve the collection of relevant data, the use of logical reasoning, and the application of imagination in devising hypotheses and explanations to make sense of the collected data. 1B/M1b*
 * If more than one variable changes at the same time in an experiment, the outcome of the experiment may not be clearly attributable to any one variable. It may not always be possible to prevent outside variables from influencing an investigation (or even to identify all of the variables). 1B/M2ab
 * Collaboration among investigators can often lead to research designs that are able to deal with situations where it is not possible to control all of the variables. 1B/M2c*
 * What people expect to observe often affects what they actually do observe. Strong beliefs about what should happen in particular circumstances can prevent them from detecting other results. 1B/M3ab
 * Scientists know about the danger of prior expectations to objectivity and take steps to try and avoid it when designing investigations and examining data. One safeguard is to have different investigators conduct independent studies of the same questions. 1B/M3c
 * Important contributions to the advancement of science, mathematics, and technology have been made by different kinds of people, in different cultures, at different times. 1C/M1
 * Until recently, women and racial minorities, because of restrictions on their education and employment opportunities, were essentially left out of much of the formal work of the science establishment; the remarkable few who overcame those obstacles were even then likely to have their work disregarded by the science establishment. 1C/M2
 * No matter who does science and mathematics or invents things, or when or where they do it, the knowledge and technology that result can eventually become available to everyone in the world. 1C/M3
 * Scientists are employed by colleges and universities, business and industry, hospitals, and many government agencies. Their places of work include offices, classrooms, laboratories, farms, factories, and natural field settings ranging from space to the ocean floor. 1C/M4
 * In research involving human subjects, the ethics of science require that potential subjects be fully informed about the risks and benefits associated with the research and of their right to refuse to participate. Because animals cannot make informed choices, special care must be taken in using them in scientific research. 1C/M5ac*
 * Science ethics demand that scientists must not knowingly subject coworkers, students, or community residents to health or property risks without their prior knowledge and consent. 1C/M5b*
 * Computers have become invaluable in science, mathematics, and technology because they speed up and extend people's ability to collect, store, compile, and analyze data; prepare research reports; and share data and ideas with investigators all over the world. 1C/M6*
 * Accurate record-keeping, openness, and replication are essential for maintaining an investigator's credibility with other scientists and society. 1C/M7
 * Scientists' personal interests and viewpoints can influence the questions they investigate. 1C/M8 (SFAA)
 * Scientists are linked to other scientists worldwide both personally and through international scientific organizations. 1C/M9 (BSL)

Back to National Standards Table of Contents 

**2. The Nature of Mathematics**
A. Patterns and Relationships B. Mathematics, Science, and Technology C. Mathematical Inquiry

A. [|Patterns and Relationships]
 * Usually there is no one right way to solve a mathematical problem; different methods have different advantages and disadvantages. 2A/M1
 * Logical connections can be found between different parts of mathematics. 2A/M2

B. [|Mathematics, Science, and Technology]
 * Mathematics is helpful in almost every kind of human endeavor—from laying bricks to prescribing medicine or drawing a face. 2B/M1*

C. [|Mathematical Inquiry]
 * Mathematicians often represent things with abstract ideas, such as numbers or perfectly straight lines, and then work with those ideas alone. The "things" from which they abstract can be ideas themselves (for example, a proposition about "all equal-sided triangles" or "all odd numbers"). 2C/M1
 * When mathematicians use logical rules to work with representations of things, the results may not be entirely valid for the things themselves. 2C/M2a
 * Using mathematics to solve a problem requires choosing what mathematics to use; probably making some simplifying assumptions, estimates, or approximations; doing computations; and then checking to see whether the answer makes sense. 2C/M2b

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**3. The Nature of Technology**
A. Technology and Science B. Design and Systems C. Issues in Technology  A. [|Technology and Science]  B. [|Design and Systems]  C. [|Issues in Technology]
 * In earlier times, the accumulated information and techniques of each generation of workers were taught on the job directly to the next generation of workers. Today, the knowledge base for technology can be found as well in libraries of print and electronic resources and is often taught in the classroom. 3A/M1
 * Technology is essential to science for such purposes as access to outer space and other remote locations, sample collection and treatment, measurement, data collection and storage, computation, and communication of information. 3A/M2
 * Engineers, architects, and others who engage in design and technology use scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. They also usually have to take human values and limitations into account. 3A/M3*
 * Design usually requires taking into account not only physical and biological constraints, but also economic, political, social, ethical, and aesthetic ones. 3B/M1*
 * All technologies have effects other than those intended by the design, some of which may have been predictable and some not. 3B/M2a
 * Side effects of technologies may turn out to be unacceptable to some of the population and therefore lead to conflict between groups. 3B/M2b
 * Almost all control systems have inputs, outputs, and feedback. 3B/M3a
 * The essence of control is comparing information about what is happening to what people want to happen and then making appropriate adjustments. This procedure requires sensing information, processing it, and making changes. 3B/M3bc
 * In almost all modern machines, microprocessors serve as centers of performance control. 3B/M3d
 * Systems fail because they have faulty or poorly matched parts, are used in ways that exceed what was intended by the design, or were poorly designed to begin with. 3B/M4a
 * The most common ways to prevent failure are pretesting of parts and procedures, overdesign, and redundancy. 3B/M4a
 * The human ability to shape the future comes from a capacity for generating knowledge and developing new technologies—and for communicating ideas to others. 3C/M1
 * Technology cannot always provide successful solutions to problems or fulfill all human needs. 3C/M2*
 * Throughout history, people have carried out impressive technological feats, some of which would be hard to duplicate today even with modern tools. The purposes served by these achievements have sometimes been practical, sometimes ceremonial. 3C/M3
 * Technology is largely responsible for the great revolutions in agriculture, manufacturing, sanitation and medicine, warfare, transportation, information processing, and communications that have radically changed how people live and work. 3C/M4*
 * New technologies increase some risks and decrease others. Some of the same technologies that have improved the length and quality of life for many people have also brought new risks. 3C/M5
 * Rarely are technology issues simple and one-sided. Relevant facts alone, even when known and available, usually do not settle matters. That is because contending groups may have different values and priorities. They may stand to gain or lose in different degrees, or may make very different predictions about what the future consequences of the proposed action will be. 3C/M6*
 * Societies influence what aspects of technology are developed and how these are used. People control technology (as well as science) and are responsible for its effects. 3C/M7
 * Scientific laws, engineering principles, properties of materials, and construction techniques must be taken into account in designing engineering solutions to problems. 3C/M8 (BSL)
 * In all technologies, there are always trade-offs to be made. 3C/M9 (BSL)

Back to National Standards Table of Contents 

**4. The Physical Setting**
A. The Universe B. The Earth C. Processes that Shape the Earth D. The Structure of Matter E. Energy Transformations F. Motion G. Forces of Nature 

A. [|The Universe]
 B. [|The Earth]  C. [|Processes that Shape the Earth]  D. [|The Structure of Matter]  E. [|Energy Transformations]  F**. [|Motion]**  G. [|Forces of Nature]
 * The sun is a medium-sized star located near the edge of a disc-shaped galaxy of stars, part of which can be seen as a glowing band of light that spans the sky on a very clear night. 4A/M1a
 * The universe contains many billions of galaxies, and each galaxy contains many billions of stars. To the naked eye, even the closest of these galaxies is no more than a dim, fuzzy spot. 4A/M1bc
 * The sun is many thousands of times closer to the earth than any other star. Light from the sun takes a few minutes to reach the earth, but light from the next nearest star takes a few years to arrive. The trip to that star would take the fastest rocket thousands of years. 4A/M2abc
 * Some distant galaxies are so far away that their light takes several billion years to reach the earth. People on earth, therefore, see them as they were that long ago in the past. 4A/M2de
 * Nine planets of very different size, composition, and surface features move around the sun in nearly circular orbits. Some planets have a variety of moons and even flat rings of rock and ice particles orbiting around them. Some of these planets and moons show evidence of geologic activity. The earth is orbited by one moon, many artificial satellites, and debris. 4A/M3
 * Many chunks of rock orbit the sun. Those that meet the earth glow and disintegrate from friction as they plunge through the atmosphere—and sometimes impact the ground. Other chunks of rock mixed with ice have long, off-center orbits that carry them close to the sun, where the sun's radiation (of light and particles) boils off frozen materials from their surfaces and pushes it into a long, illuminated tail. 4A/M4*
 * The earth is mostly rock. Three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered by a relatively thin layer of water (some of it frozen), and the entire planet is surrounded by a relatively thin layer of air. 4B/M2ab*
 * Earth is the only body in the solar system that appears able to support life. The other planets have compositions and conditions very different from the earth's. 4B/M2cd
 * Everything on or anywhere near the earth is pulled toward the earth's center by gravitational force. 4B/M3
 * The moon's orbit around the earth once in about 28 days changes what part of the moon is lighted by the sun and how much of that part can be seen from the earth- the phases of the moon. 4B/M5
 * Climates have sometimes changed abruptly in the past as a result of volcanic eruptions or impacts of huge rocks from space. 4B/M6*
 * Water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises and cools, condenses into rain or snow, and falls again to the surface. The water falling on land collects in rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of rock, and much of it flows back into the oceans. The cycling of water in and out of the atmosphere is a significant aspect of the weather patterns on Earth. 4B/M7*
 * Fresh water, limited in supply, is essential for some organisms and industrial processes. Water in rivers, lakes, and underground can be depleted or polluted, making it unavailable or unsuitable for life. 4B/M8*
 * Thermal energy carried by ocean currents has a strong influence on climates around the world. Areas near oceans tend to have more moderate temperatures than they would if they were farther inland but at the same latitude because water in the oceans can hold a large amount of thermal energy. 4B/M9*
 * Some material resources are very rare and some exist in great quantities. The ability to obtain and process resources depends on where they are located and the form they are in. As resources are depleted, they may become more difficult to obtain. 4B/M10ab*
 * Recycling materials and the development of substitutes for those materials can reduce the rate of depletion of resources but may also be costly. Some materials are not easily recycled. 4B/M10c*
 * The wasteful or unnecessary use of natural resources can limit their availability for other purposes. Restoring depleted soil, forests, or fishing grounds can be difficult and costly. 4B/M11a*
 * The benefits of Earth's resources—such as fresh water, air, soil, and trees—can be reduced by deliberately or inadvertently polluting them. The atmosphere, the oceans, and the land have a limited capacity to absorb and recycle waste materials. In addition, some materials take a long time to degrade. Therefore, cleaning up polluted air, water, or soil can be difficult and costly. 4B/M11bc*
 * The temperature of a place on the earth's surface tends to rise and fall in a somewhat predictable pattern every day and over the course of a year. The pattern of temperature changes observed in a place tends to vary depending on how far north or south of the equator the place is, how near to oceans it is, and how high above sea level it is. 4B/M12
 * The number of hours of daylight and the intensity of the sunlight both vary in a predictable pattern that depends on how far north or south of the equator the place is. This variation explains why temperatures vary over the course of the year and at different locations. 4B/M13
 * The earth has a variety of climates, defined by average temperature, precipitation, humidity, air pressure, and wind, over time in a particular place. 4B/M14
 * The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases. 4B/M15 (NSES)
 * The interior of the earth is hot. Heat flow and movement of material within the earth cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and create mountains and ocean basins. Gas and dust from large volcanoes can change the atmosphere. 4C/M1
 * Some changes in the earth's surface are abrupt (such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions) while other changes happen very slowly (such as uplift and wearing down of mountains). 4C/M2a
 * The earth's surface is shaped in part by the motion of water (including ice) and wind over very long times, which acts to level mountain ranges. Rivers and glacial ice carry off soil and break down rock, eventually depositing the material in sediments or carrying it in solution to the sea. 4C/M2b*
 * Sediments of sand and smaller particles (sometimes containing the remains of organisms) are gradually buried and are cemented together by dissolved minerals to form solid rock again. 4C/M3
 * Sedimentary rock buried deep enough may be re-formed by pressure and heat, perhaps melting and recrystallizing into different kinds of rock. These re-formed rock layers may be forced up again to become land surface and even mountains. Subsequently, this new rock too will erode. Rock bears evidence of the minerals, temperatures, and forces that created it. 4C/M4
 * Thousands of layers of sedimentary rock confirm the long history of the changing surface of the earth and the changing life forms whose remains are found in successive layers. The youngest layers are not always found on top, because of folding, breaking, and uplift of layers. 4C/M5
 * Although weathered rock is the basic component of soil, the composition and texture of soil and its fertility and resistance to erosion are greatly influenced by plant roots and debris, bacteria, fungi, worms, insects, rodents, and other organisms. 4C/M6
 * Human activities, such as reducing the amount of forest cover, increasing the amount and variety of chemicals released into the atmosphere, and intensive farming, have changed the earth's land, oceans, and atmosphere. Some of these changes have decreased the capacity of the environment to support some life forms. 4C/M7
 * There are a variety of different land forms on the earth's surface (such as coastlines, rivers, mountains, deltas, and canyons). 4C/M8 (BSL)
 * Matching coastlines and similarities in rock types and life forms suggest that today's continents are separated parts of what was long ago a single continent. 4C/M9 (SFAA)
 * The earth first formed in a molten state and then the surface cooled into solid rock. 4C/M10 (ASL)
 * The outer layer of the earth—including both the continents and the ocean basins—consists of separate plates. 4C/M11 (BSL)
 * The earth's plates sit on a dense, hot, somewhat melted layer of the earth. The plates move very slowly, pressing against one another in some places and pulling apart in other places, sometimes scraping alongside each other as they do. Mountains form as two continental plates, or an ocean plate and a continental plate, press together. 4C/M12 (BSL)
 * There are worldwide patterns to major geological events (such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building) that coincide with plate boundaries. 4C/M13 (BSL)
 * All matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope. 4D/M1a
 * The atoms of any element are like other atoms of the same element, but are different from the atoms of other elements. 4D/M1b*
 * Atoms may link together in well-defined molecules, or may be packed together in crystal patterns. Different arrangements of atoms into groups compose all substances and determine the characteristic properties of substances. 4D/M1cd*
 * Equal volumes of different materials usually have different masses. 4D/M2*
 * Atoms and molecules are perpetually in motion. Increased temperature means greater average energy of motion, so most substances expand when heated. 4D/M3ab
 * In solids, the atoms or molecules are closely locked in position and can only vibrate. In liquids, they have higher energy, are more loosely connected, and can slide past one another; some molecules may get enough energy to escape into a gas. In gases, the atoms or molecules have still more energy and are free of one another except during occasional collisions. 4D/M3cd
 * The temperature and acidity of a solution influence reaction rates. Many substances dissolve in water, which may greatly facilitate reactions between them. 4D/M4
 * Chemical elements are those substances that do not break down during normal laboratory reactions involving such treatments as heating, exposure to electric current, or reaction with acids. All substances from living and nonliving things can be broken down to a set of about 100 elements, but since most elements tend to combine with others, few elements are found in their pure form. 4D/M5*
 * There are groups of elements that have similar properties, including highly reactive metals, less-reactive metals, highly reactive nonmetals (such as chlorine, fluorine, and oxygen), and some almost completely nonreactive gases (such as helium and neon). 4D/M6a
 * An important kind of reaction between substances involves the combination of oxygen with something else—as in burning or rusting. 4D/M6b*
 * Carbon and hydrogen are common elements of living matter. 4D/M6c*
 * No matter how substances within a closed system interact with one another, or how they combine or break apart, the total mass of the system remains the same. 4D/M7a*
 * The idea of atoms explains the conservation of matter: If the number of atoms stays the same no matter how the same atoms are rearranged, then their total mass stays the same. 4D/M7b
 * Most substances can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas depending on temperature. 4D/M8 (SFAA)
 * Materials vary in how they respond to electric currents, magnetic forces, and visible light or other electromagnetic waves. 4D/M9
 * A substance has characteristic properties such as density, a boiling point, and solubility, all of which are independent of the amount of the substance and can be used to identify it. 4D/M10 (NSES)
 * Substances react chemically in characteristic ways with other substances to form new substances with different characteristic properties. 4D/M11 (NSES)
 * If samples of both the original substances and the final substances involved in a chemical reaction are broken down, they are found to be made up of the same set of elements. 4D/M12
 * The idea of atoms explains chemical reactions: When substances interact to form new substances, the atoms that make up the molecules of the original substances combine in new ways. 4D/M13
 * Whenever energy appears in one place, it must have disappeared from another. Whenever energy is lost from somewhere, it must have gone somewhere else. Sometimes when energy appears to be lost, it actually has been transferred to a system that is so large that the effect of the transferred energy is imperceptible. 4E/M1*
 * Energy can be transferred from one system to another (or from a system to its environment) in different ways: 1) thermally, when a warmer object is in contact with a cooler one; 2) mechanically, when two objects push or pull on each other over a distance; 3) electrically, when an electrical source such as a battery or generator is connected in a complete circuit to an electrical device; or 4) by electromagnetic waves. 4E/M2*
 * Thermal energy is transferred through a material by the collisions of atoms within the material. Over time, the thermal energy tends to spread out through a material and from one material to another if they are in contact. Thermal energy can also be transferred by means of currents in air, water, or other fluids. In addition, some thermal energy in all materials is transformed into light energy and radiated into the environment by electromagnetic waves; that light energy can be transformed back into thermal energy when the electromagnetic waves strike another material. As a result, a material tends to cool down unless some other form of energy is converted to thermal energy in the material. 4E/M3*
 * Energy appears in different forms and can be transformed within a system. Motion energy is associated with the speed of an object. Thermal energy is associated with the temperature of an object. Gravitational energy is associated with the height of an object above a reference point. Elastic energy is associated with the stretching or compressing of an elastic object. Chemical energy is associated with the composition of a substance. Electrical energy is associated with an electric current in a circuit. Light energy is associated with the frequency of electromagnetic waves. 4E/M4*
 * Light and other electromagnetic waves can warm objects. How much an object's temperature increases depends on how intense the light striking its surface is, how long the light shines on the object, and how much of the light is absorbed. 4E/M6
 * Light from the sun is made up of a mixture of many different colors of light, even though to the eye the light looks almost white. Other things that give off or reflect light have a different mix of colors. 4F/M1
 * Something can be "seen" when light waves emitted or reflected by it enter the eye—just as something can be "heard" when sound waves from it enter the ear. 4F/M2
 * An unbalanced force acting on an object changes its speed or direction of motion, or both. 4F/M3a
 * If a force acts towards a single center, the object's path may curve into an orbit around the center. 4F/M3b
 * Vibrations in materials set up wavelike disturbances that spread away from the source. Sound and earthquake waves are examples. These and other waves move at different speeds in different materials. 4F/M4
 * Human eyes respond to only a narrow range of wavelengths of electromagnetic waves-visible light. Differences of wavelength within that range are perceived as differences of color. 4F/M5*
 * Light acts like a wave in many ways. And waves can explain how light behaves. 4F/M6 (ASL)
 * Wave behavior can be described in terms of how fast the disturbance spreads, and in terms of the distance between successive peaks of the disturbance (the wavelength). 4F/M7 (SFAA)
 * There are a great variety of electromagnetic waves: radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and gamma rays. These wavelengths vary from radio waves, the longest, to gamma rays, the shortest. 4F/M8 (BSL)
 * Every object exerts gravitational force on every other object. The force depends on how much mass the objects have and on how far apart they are. The force is hard to detect unless at least one of the objects has a lot of mass. 4G/M1
 * The sun's gravitational pull holds the earth and other planets in their orbits, just as the planets' gravitational pull keeps their moons in orbit around them. 4G/M2
 * Electric currents and magnets can exert a force on each other. 4G/M3
 * Electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electrical current can pass. 4G/M4 (NSES)
 * A charged object can be charged in one of two ways, which we call either positively charged or negatively charged. Two objects that are charged in the same manner exert a force of repulsion on each other, while oppositely charged objects exert a force of attraction on each other. 4G/M5 (BSL)

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**5. The Living Environment**
A. Diversity of Life B. Heredity C. Cells D. Interdependence of Life E. Flow of Matter and Energy F. Evolution of Life

A. [|Diversity of Life]
 * One of the most general distinctions among organisms is between plants, which use sunlight to make their own food, and animals, which consume energy-rich foods. Some kinds of organisms, many of them microscopic, cannot be neatly classified as either plants or animals. 5A/M1
 * Animals and plants have a great variety of body plans and internal structures that contribute to their being able to make or find food and reproduce. 5A/M2
 * Similarities among organisms are found in internal anatomical features, which can be used to infer the degree of relatedness among organisms. 5A/M3a
 * In classifying organisms, scientists consider details of both internal and external structures. 5A/M3b*
 * Traditionally, a species has been defined as all organisms that can mate with one another to produce fertile offspring. 5A/M4*
 * The cycles continue indefinitely because organisms are decomposed after death to return food materials to the environment. 5A/M5*

B. [|Heredity]
 * In some kinds of organisms, all the genes come from a single parent. 5B/M1a
 * In organisms that have two sexes, typically half of the genes come from each parent. 5B/M1b*
 * In sexual reproduction, a single specialized cell from a female merges with a specialized cell from a male. 5B/M2a
 * The fertilized egg cell, carrying genetic information from each parent, multiplies to form the complete organism. 5B/M2b*
 * The same genetic information is copied in each cell of the new organism. 5B/M2c
 * New varieties of cultivated plants and domestic animals have resulted from selective breeding for particular traits. 5B/M3

C. [|Cells]
 * All living things are composed of cells, from just one to many millions, whose details usually are visible only through a microscope. 5C/M1a
 * Different body tissues and organs are made up of different kinds of cells. 5C/M1b
 * The cells in similar tissues and organs in other animals are similar to those in human beings but differ somewhat from cells found in plants. 5C/M1c
 * Cells repeatedly divide to make more cells for growth and repair. 5C/M2a
 * Various organs and tissues function to serve the needs of all cells for food, air, and waste removal. 5C/M2b
 * Within cells, many of the basic functions of organisms—such as extracting energy from food and getting rid of waste—are carried out. 5C/M3a
 * The way in which cells function is similar in all living organisms. 5C/M3b
 * About two thirds of the weight of cells is accounted for by water, which gives cells many of their properties. 5C/M4

D. [|Interdependence of Life]
 * In all environments, organisms with similar needs may compete with one another for limited resources, including food, space, water, air, and shelter. 5D/M1a*
 * The world contains a wide diversity of physical conditions, which creates a wide variety of environments: freshwater, marine, forest, desert, grassland, mountain, and others. In any particular environment, the growth and survival of organisms depend on the physical conditions. 5D/M1b*
 * Interactions between organisms may be for nourishment, reproduction, or protection and may benefit one of the organisms or both of them. Some species have become so dependent on each other that neither could survive without the other. 5D/M2*
 * One organism may scavenge or decompose another. 5D/M2b
 * Given adequate resources and an absence of disease or predators, populations of organisms in ecosystems increase at rapid rates. Finite resources and other factors limit their growth. 5D/M3 (NSES)
 * All organisms, both land-based and aquatic, are interconnected by their need for food. This network of interconnections is referred to as a food web. The entire earth can be considered a single global food web, and food webs can also be described for a particular environment. At the base of any food web are organisms that make their own food, followed by the animals that eat them, then the animals that eat those animals, and so forth. 5D/M4 (BSL)

E. [|Flow of Matter and Energy]
 * Food provides molecules that serve as fuel and building material for all organisms. 5E/M1a
 * Plants use the energy from light to make sugars from carbon dioxide and water. 5E/M1b
 * Plants can use the food they make immediately or store it for later use. 5E/M1c
 * Organisms that eat plants break down the plant structures to produce the materials and energy they need to survive. Then they are consumed by other organisms. 5E/M1de
 * Over a long time, matter is transferred from one organism to another repeatedly and between organisms and their physical environment. As in all material systems, the total amount of matter remains constant, even though its form and location change. 5E/M2
 * Energy can change from one form to another in living things. 5E/M3a
 * Organisms get energy from oxidizing their food, releasing some of its energy as thermal energy. 5E/M3b*
 * Almost all food energy comes originally from sunlight. 5E/M3c

F. [|Evolution of Life]
 * Small differences between parents and offspring can accumulate (through selective breeding) in successive generations so that descendants are very different from their ancestors. 5F/M1
 * Individual organisms with certain traits are more likely than others to survive and have offspring. 5F/M2a
 * Changes in environmental conditions can affect the survival of individual organisms and entire species. 5F/M2b
 * Many thousands of layers of sedimentary rock provide evidence for the long history of the earth and for the long history of changing life forms whose remains are found in the rocks. 5F/M3a
 * More recently deposited rock layers are more likely to contain fossils resembling existing species. 5F/M3b
 * Most species that have lived on the earth are now extinct. Extinction of species occurs when the environment changes and the individual organisms of that species do not have the traits necessary to survive and reproduce in the changed environment. 5F/M4 (NSES)
 * Reproduction is necessary for the survival of any species. 5F/M5*

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**6. The Human Organism**
A. Human Identity B. Human Development C. Basic Functions D. Learning E. Physical Health F. Mental Health  A. [|Human Identity]  B. [|Human Development]  C. [|Basic Functions]  D. [|Learning]  E. [|Physical Health]  F. [|Mental Health]
 * Like other animals, human beings have body systems for obtaining and deriving energy from food and for defense, reproduction, and the coordination of body functions. 6A/M1*
 * Although social behaviors are affected by both genes and environmental factors, human beings are still able to invent, learn, and modify a wide variety of these behaviors. 6A/M4*
 * Human beings use technology to match or exceed many of the abilities of other species. 6A/M5*
 * Technologies having to do with food production, sanitation, and health care have dramatically changed how people live and work and have resulted in rapid increases in the human population. 6A/M6*
 * Like other complex organisms, people vary somewhat in size and shape, skin color, body proportions, body hair, facial features, muscle strength, handedness, and so on. But these differences are minor compared to the overall similarity of all humans, as demonstrated by the fact that people from anywhere in the world can reproduce with each other and donate blood or organs to one another. Humans are indeed a single species. Furthermore, as great as cultural differences between groups of people seem to be, people's complex languages, technologies, and arts unite them as a species distinct from others. 6A/M7 (SFAA)
 * Written records and photographic and electronic devices enable human beings to share, compile, and use great amounts of information. 6A/M8 (BSL)
 * Human fertilization occurs when sperm cells from a male's testes are deposited near an egg cell from the female ovary, and one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell. 6B/M1*
 * Contraception measures may incapacitate sperm, block their way to the egg, prevent the release of eggs, or prevent the fertilized egg from implanting successfully. 6B/M2
 * The developing embryo—and later the newborn infant—is subject to many risks from infection, faults in its genes, its mother's inadequate diet, or her use of cigarettes, alcohol, or other drugs. Inadequate child care may lead to lower physical and mental ability. 6B/M4*
 * Various body changes occur as adults age. Muscles and joints become less flexible, bones and muscles lose mass, energy levels diminish, and the senses become less acute. Women stop releasing eggs and hence can no longer reproduce. 6B/M5abc
 * The length and quality of human life are influenced by genes and environmental factors, including sanitation, diet, medical care, and personal health behaviors. 6B/M5d*
 * Development sometimes involves dramatic biological changes. For example, puberty involves the maturation of the body to enable reproduction. 6B/M6 (SFAA)
 * Development occurs with somewhat different timing for different individuals. 6B/M7 (SFAA)
 * Organs and organ systems are composed of cells and help to provide all cells with basic needs. 6C/M1
 * For the body to use food for energy and building materials, the food must first be digested into molecules that are absorbed and transported to cells. 6C/M2
 * To burn food for the release of energy stored in it, oxygen must be supplied to cells, and carbon dioxide removed. Lungs take in oxygen for the combustion of food and eliminate the carbon dioxide produced. The urinary system disposes of dissolved waste molecules, the intestinal tract removes solid wastes, and the skin and lungs aid in the transfer of thermal energy from the body. The circulatory system moves all these substances to or from cells where they are needed or produced, responding to changing demands. 6C/M3*
 * Specialized cells and the molecules they produce identify and destroy microbes that get inside the body. 6C/M4
 * Hormones are chemicals from glands that affect other body parts. They are involved in helping the body respond to danger and in regulating human growth, development, and reproduction. 6C/M5
 * Interactions among the senses, nerves, and brain make possible the learning that enables human beings to predict, analyze, and respond to changes in their environment. 6C/M6*
 * Some animal species are limited to a repertoire of genetically determined behaviors; others have more complex brains and can learn and modify a wide variety of behaviors. 6D/M1a
 * All behavior is affected by both inheritance and experience. 6D/M1b
 * The level of skill a person can reach in any particular activity depends on innate abilities, the amount of practice, and the use of appropriate learning technologies. 6D/M2
 * Human beings can detect a tremendous range of visual and olfactory stimuli. The strongest stimulus they can tolerate may be more than a trillion times as intense as the weakest they can detect. Still, there are many kinds of signals in the world that people cannot detect directly. 6D/M3
 * Attending closely to any one input of information usually reduces the ability to attend to others at the same time. 6D/M4
 * Learning often results from two perceptions or actions occurring at about the same time. The more often the same combination occurs, the stronger the mental connection between them is likely to be. Occasionally a single vivid experience will connect two things permanently in people's minds. 6D/M5
 * Language and tools enable human beings to learn complicated and varied things from others. 6D/M6
 * The amount of food energy (calories) a person requires varies with body weight, age, sex, activity level, and natural body efficiency. 6E/M1a
 * Regular exercise is important to maintain a healthy heart/lung system, good muscle tone, and bone strength. 6E/M1b
 * Toxic substances, some dietary habits, and some personal behavior may be bad for one's health. Some effects show up right away, others years later. Avoiding toxic substances, such as tobacco, and changing dietary habits increase the chance of living longer. 6E/M2
 * Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions. A person can catch a cold many times because there are many varieties of cold viruses that cause similar symptoms. 6E/M3
 * White blood cells engulf invaders or produce antibodies that attack them or mark them for killing by other white cells. The antibodies produced will remain and can fight off subsequent invaders of the same kind. 6E/M4
 * The environment may contain dangerous levels of substances that are harmful to human beings. Therefore, the good health of individuals requires monitoring the soil, air, and water and taking steps to make them safe. 6E/M5
 * Specific kinds of germs cause specific diseases. 6E/M6 (BSL)
 * Vaccines induce the body to build immunity to a disease without actually causing the disease itself. 6E/M7 (BSL)
 * Individuals differ greatly in their ability to cope with stressful situations. 6F/M1a
 * Both external and internal conditions (chemistry, personal history, values) influence how people behave. 6F/M1b
 * People may react to mental distress by denying they have any problems. 6F/M2a
 * With help people can sometimes uncover the reasons for their feelings. 6F/M2b

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**7. Human Society**
A. Cultural Effects on Behavior B. Group Behavior C. Social Change D. Social Trade-Offs E. Political and Economic Systems F. Social Conflict G. Global Interdependence

A. [|Cultural Effects on Behavior]
 * Within a large society, there are a variety of groups whose identities are determined in part by the social class, gender, ethnicity, or the region of the country where they live. 7A/M2*
 * Although within any society there is usually broad general agreement on what behavior is unacceptable, the standards used to judge behavior vary for different settings and subgroups, and they may change with time and different political and economic conditions. 7A/M3a
 * Rewards and punishments vary widely among, and even within, different societies. 7A/M3b*
 * Technology, especially in transportation and communication, is increasingly important in spreading ideas, values, and behavior patterns within a society and among different societies. New technology can change cultural values and social behavior. 7A/M4
 * What is considered to be acceptable behavior varies from culture to culture and from one time period to another, but there are some behaviors that are unacceptable in almost all cultures, past and present. 7A/M5 (BSL)

B. [|Group Behavior]
 * Being a member of a group often has personal advantages, such as companionship, a sense of identity, and recognition by others inside and outside the group. Group identity may also create a sense of separation from other groups or individuals. 7B/M1*
 * People sometimes react to all members of a group as though they were the same and perceive in the members' behavior only those qualities that fit preconceptions of the group. Such stereotyping leads to uncritical judgments, such as showing blind respect for members of some groups and blind disrespect for members of other groups. 7B/M2*
 * Some groups result from the creation of an organization. Others exist only in the sense that members share some common characteristics or interests. 7B/M3

C. [|Social Change]
 * Some aspects of family and community life are the same now as a generation ago, but some aspects are very different. What is taught in school and school policies have been changed over the years in response to family and community pressures. 7C/M1
 * By the way they depict the ideas and customs of one culture, communications media may stimulate changes in other cultures. 7C/M2
 * Migration, conquest, and natural disasters have been major factors in causing social and cultural change. 7C/M3

D. [|Social Trade-Offs]
 * There are trade-offs that each person must consider in making choices—about personal popularity, health, family relations, and education, for example—that often have lifelong consequences. 7D/M1
 * One common aspect of all social trade-offs pits personal benefit and rights of the individual, on one side, against the general social good, on the other. 7D/M2
 * Trade-offs are not always between desirable possibilities. Sometimes social and personal trade-offs require accepting an unwanted outcome to avoid some other unwanted one. 7D/M3

E. [|Political and Economic Systems]
 * Government provides some goods and services through its own agencies and some through contracts with private individuals or businesses. To pay for the goods and services, government must obtain money by taxing people or by borrowing the money. 7E/M1
 * Governments are run by people who come into power by election, appointment, or force. 7E/M2*
 * Governments usually have most of the power to make, revise, interpret, and enforce the rules and decisions that determine how a community, state, or nation is run. Many of the rules established by governments are designed to reduce social conflict. The rules affect a wide range of human affairs, from marriage and education to scientific research and commerce. 7E/M3*
 * Some industries are controlled by government agencies that decide which goods or services to provide and how to distribute them based on various political considerations. 7E/M4a*
 * Some industries are privately owned and controlled by many different individuals or groups of individuals that decide which goods or services to provide based on what they believe will personally benefit them the most. 7E/M4b*
 * Almost all societies have some industries that are privately owned and some that are run by government agencies. 7E/M4c*
 * The goods and services that people want are supplied by individuals or by groups of individuals. 7E/M5
 * The political system of a nation is closely intertwined with its economic system, refereeing the economic activity of individuals and groups at every level. 7E/M6 (SFAA)

F. [|Social Conflict]
 * Groups are sometimes formed to consolidate influence or power through pooled resources and concerted action. The formation of a group highlights the differences between people who are members and those who are not and may lead to conflict between them. 7F/M1*
 * Most groups have formal or informal procedures for arbitrating conflicts between their members. 7F/M2*
 * Conflict between people or groups arises from competition over ideas, resources, power, and status. 7F/M3 (BSL)
 * Social change, or the prospect of it, often promotes conflict. Rarely, if ever, is a proposed social, economic, or political change likely to benefit every component of a social system equally, and so the groups that see themselves as possible losers resist the change. 7F/M4 (SFAA)

G. [|Global Interdependence]
 * Trade between nations occurs when natural resources or the skill to make something are unevenly distributed or when the costs of production are very different in different countries. A nation has a trade opportunity whenever it can create more of a product or service, or a better quality product or service, or a less expensive product or service than can another nation. 7G/M1*
 * The economic well-being of a country may be enhanced by improving the skill and motivation of its workforce, by developing equipment or practices that are more efficient and produce higher quality products and services, and by engaging in trade with other nations. 7G/M2*
 * Treaties are negotiated between two or more nations to establish or maintain peaceful relationships, to define parameters for trade, or to create political or military alliances. 7G/M3*
 * The global environment is affected by national and international policies and practices relating to energy use, waste disposal, ecological management, manufacturing, and population. 7G/M5*
 * Communication and transportation technologies influence how much people in different countries may interact, whether it be for political, economic, or social purposes. 7G/M6
 * International organizations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and the European Union provide a structure for nations to communicate, reach consensus, and negotiate treaties, but these organizations often have only limited authority over their members. 7G/M7 (SFAA)
 * Treaties do not affect all of the people in a country equally. 7G/M8 (SFAA)

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**8. The Designed World**
A. Agriculture B. Materials and Manufacturing C. Energy Sources and Use D. Communication E. Information Processing F. Health Technology  A. [|Agriculture]  B. [|Materials and Manufacturing]  C. [|Energy Sources and Use]  D. [|Communication]  E. [|Information Processing]  F. [|Health Technology]
 * Early in human history, people changed from hunting and gathering to farming. This shift allowed changes in the division of labor between men and women and between children and adults and led to the development of new patterns of government. 8A/M1
 * People control some characteristics of plants and animals they raise by selective breeding and by preserving varieties of seeds (old and new) to use if growing conditions change. 8A/M2*
 * In agriculture, as in all technologies, there are always trade-offs to be made. Specializing in one crop may risk disaster if changes in weather or increases in pest populations wipe out that crop. Also, the soil may be exhausted of some nutrients, which can be replenished by rotating the right crops. 8A/M3acd
 * Getting food from many different places makes people less dependent on weather in any one place yet more dependent on transportation and communication among far-flung markets. 8A/M3b
 * With improved technology, only a small fraction of workers in the U.S. actually plant and harvest the products that people use. Most workers are engaged in processing, packaging, transporting, and selling what is produced. 8A/M4*
 * The choice of materials for a job depends on their properties. 8B/M1*
 * Manufacturing usually involves a series of steps, such as designing a product, obtaining and preparing raw materials, processing the materials mechanically or chemically, and assembling the product. All steps may occur at a single location or may occur at different locations. 8B/M2*
 * Advances in manufacturing processes can reduce costs and improve products. 8B/M3*
 * Automation, including the use of robots, has changed the nature of work in most fields, including manufacturing. As a result, the demand for workers with some knowledge and skills has decreased while the demand for workers with other knowledge and skills has increased. Furthermore, as the pace of innovation has increased, workers have needed to learn new skills throughout their careers. 8B/M4*
 * Efforts to find replacements for existing materials are driven by an interest in finding materials that are cheaper to obtain or produce or that have more desirable properties. 8B/M5 (SFAA)
 * Some materials, such as plastics, are synthesized in chemical reactions that link atoms together in long chains. Plastics can be designed to have a variety of different properties for a variety of uses. 8B/M6 (SFAA)
 * Machines can be used to manufacture parts that are nearly identical. The use of these interchangeable parts allows for more efficient assembly as time is not needed to customize the fit of different parts. 8B/M7 (BSL)
 * Transformations and transfers of energy within a system usually result in some energy escaping into its surrounding environment. Some systems transfer less energy to their environment than others during these transformations and transfers. 8C/M1*
 * Different ways of obtaining, transforming, and distributing energy have different environmental consequences. 8C/M2
 * In many instances, manufacturing and other technological activities are performed at a site close to an energy resource. Some forms of energy are transported easily, others are not. 8C/M3
 * Electrical energy can be generated from a variety of energy resources and can be transformed into almost any other form of energy. Electric circuits are used to distribute energy quickly and conveniently to distant locations. 8C/M4*
 * Energy from the sun (and the wind and water energy derived from it) is available indefinitely. Because the transfer of energy from these resources is weak and variable, systems are needed to collect and concentrate the energy. 8C/M5*
 * Industry, transportation, urban development, agriculture, and most other human activities are closely tied to the amount and kind of energy available. People in different parts of the world have different amounts and kinds of energy resources to use and use them for different purposes. 8C/M6*
 * Energy is required for technological processes such as taking apart, putting together, moving around, and communicating. 8C/M7 (SFAA)
 * People have invented ingenious ways of deliberately bringing about energy transformations that are useful to them. 8C/M8 (SFAA)
 * Energy resources are more useful if they are concentrated and easy to transport. 8C/M9*
 * Some resources are not renewable or renew very slowly. Fuels already accumulated in the earth, for instance, will become more difficult to obtain as the most readily available resources run out. How long the resources will last, however, is difficult to predict. The ultimate limit may be the prohibitive cost of obtaining them. 8C/M10 (SFAA)
 * By burning fuels, people are releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and transforming chemical energy into thermal energy which spreads throughout the environment. 8C/M11 (BSL)
 * Errors can occur in coding, transmitting, or decoding information, and some means of checking for accuracy is needed. Repeating the message is a frequently used method. 8D/M1
 * Information can be carried by many media, including sound, light, and objects. In the 1900s, the ability to code information as electric currents in wires, electromagnetic waves in space, and light in glass fibers has made communication millions of times faster than mail or sound. 8D/M2
 * Most computers use digital codes containing only two symbols, 0 and 1, to perform all operations. Continuously variable signals (analog) must be transformed into digital codes before they can be processed by a computer. 8E/M1
 * What use can be made of a large collection of information depends upon how it is organized. One of the values of computers is that they are able, on command, to reorganize information in a variety of ways, enabling people to make more and better uses of a collection of information. 8E/M2*
 * Computer control of mechanical systems can be much quicker than human control. In situations where events happen faster than people can react, there is little choice but to rely on computers. Most complex systems still require human oversight, however, to make certain kinds of judgments about the readiness of the parts of the system (including the computers) and the system as a whole to operate properly, to react to unexpected failures, and to evaluate how well the system is serving its intended purposes. 8E/M3*
 * An increasing number of people work at jobs that involve processing or distributing information. Because computers can do these tasks faster and more reliably, they have become standard tools both in the workplace and at home. 8E/M4
 * Sanitation measures such as the use of sewers, landfills, isolation, and safe food handling are important in controlling the spread of organisms that cause disease. Improving sanitation to prevent disease has contributed more to saving human life than any advance in medical treatment. 8F/M1*
 * The ability to measure the level of substances in body fluids has made it possible for physicians to better diagnose illnesses and monitor the effects of the treatments they prescribe. 8F/M2*
 * It is possible to manufacture complex chemical substances such as insulin and hormones that are normally found in the body. They can be used by individuals whose own bodies do not produce the amounts required for good health. 8F/M3*
 * As the knowledge of how cells in the body detect and fight invaders has grown, the transplantation of tissue or whole organs has become increasingly common. New materials that are durable and less likely to be rejected by the immune system now make it possible to replace some body parts and to implant devices for electrically pacing the heart, sensing internal conditions, or slowly dispensing drugs at optimal times. 8F/M4 (SFAA)
 * Many diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses. 8F/M5 (SFAA)
 * If the body's immune system cannot suppress a bacterial infection, an antibacterial drug may be effective—at least against the types of bacteria it was designed to combat. Less is known about the treatment of viral infections, especially the common cold. However, more recently, useful antiviral drugs have been developed for several major kinds of viral infections, including drugs to fight HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. 8F/M6 (SFAA)
 * Increased knowledge about nutrition has led to the development of diets containing the variety of foods that can help people live longer and healthier lives. 8F/M7 (SFAA)

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**9. The Mathematical World**
A. Numbers B. Symbolic Relationships C. Shapes D. Uncertainty E. Reasoning  A. [|Numbers]  B. [|Symbolic Relationships]  C. [|Shapes]  D. [|Uncertainty]  E. [|Reasoning]
 * The system of using the Arabic numerals 0-9 is just one way of representing numbers. The very old Roman numerals are now used primarily for dates, clock faces, or ordering chapters in a book. 9A/M1*
 * A number line can be extended on the other side of zero to represent negative numbers. Negative numbers allow subtraction of a bigger number from a smaller number to make sense, and are often used when something can be measured on either side of some reference point (time, ground level, temperature, budget). 9A/M2
 * The same number can be written in different forms, depending on its intended use. 9A/M3a*
 * How a quantity is expressed depends on how precise the measurement is and how precise an answer is needed. 9A/M3b*
 * The operations + and - are inverses of each other—one undoes what the other does; likewise x and ÷. 9A/M4
 * A number expressed in the form a/b can mean different things: a parts of size 1/b each, a divided by b, or a compared to b. 9A/M5*
 * Numbers can be represented by using sequences of only two symbols (such as 1 and 0, on and off); computers work this way. 9A/M6
 * Computations (as on calculators) can give more digits than make sense or are useful. 9A/M7
 * Some interesting relationships between two variables include the variables always having the same difference or the same ratio. 9A/M8
 * Exponents can be used to represent how many times a number is to be multiplied by itself. For example, 43 = 4 x 4 x 4. 9A/M9
 * An equation containing a variable may be true for just one value of the variable. 9B/M1
 * Rates of change can be computed from differences in magnitudes and vice versa. 9B/M2*
 * Graphs can show a variety of possible relationships between two variables. As one variable increases uniformly, the other may do one of the following: increase or decrease steadily, increase or decrease faster and faster, get closer and closer to some limiting value, reach some intermediate maximum or minimum, alternately increase and decrease, increase or decrease in steps, or do something different from any of these. 9B/M3*
 * Some of the properties an object has depend on its shape: triangular shapes tend to make structures rigid, and spheres give the least possible boundary for a given amount of interior volume. 9C/M1*
 * Shapes on a sphere like the earth cannot be depicted on a flat surface without some distortion. Different ways to map a curved surface (like the earth's) onto a flat surface have different advantages. 9C/M3*
 * The graphic display of numbers may help to show patterns such as trends, varying rates of change, gaps, or clusters that are useful when making predictions about the phenomena being graphed. 9C/M4*
 * It takes two numbers to locate a point on a map or any other flat surface. The numbers may be two perpendicular distances from a point, or an angle and a distance from a point. 9C/M5
 * The scale chosen for a graph or drawing makes a big difference in how useful it is. 9C/M6
 * For regularly shaped objects, relationships exist between the linear dimensions, surface area, and volume. 9C/M7 (BSL)
 * Shapes can be compared in terms of concepts such as parallel and perpendicular, congruence and similarity, and symmetry. 9C/M8 (BSL)
 * Relationships exist among the angles between the sides of triangle and the lengths of those sides. For example, when two sides of a triangle are perpendicular, the sum of the squares of the lengths of those sides is equal to the square of the third side of the triangle. 9C/M9 (SFAA)
 * Geometric relationships can be described using symbolic equations. 9C/M10 (SFAA)
 * How probability is estimated depends on what is known about the situation. Estimates can be based on data from similar conditions in the past or on the assumption that all the possibilities are known. 9D/M1
 * Probabilities are ratios and can be expressed as fractions, decimals, percentages, or odds. 9D/M2
 * The mean, median, and mode tell different things about the middle of a data set. 9D/M3
 * Comparison of data from two groups should involve comparing both their middles and the spreads around them. 9D/M4
 * The larger a well-chosen sample is, the more accurately it is likely to represent the whole. But there are many ways of choosing a sample that can make it unrepresentative of the whole. 9D/M5
 * If people have generalizations that always hold, and good information about a particular situation, then logic can help them to figure out what is true about it. This kind of formal logic requires care in the use of key words such as //if//, //then//, //and//, //not//, //or//, //all//, and //some//. 9E/M1*
 * Sometimes people invent a generalization to summarize a set of observations. But sometimes people overgeneralize, imagining generalizations on the basis of too few observations. 9E/M3*
 * People are using incorrect logic when they assume that a statement such as "If A is true, then B is true" implies that "If A isn't true, then B must not be true either." 9E/M4*
 * In formal logic, a single example can never prove that a generalization is always true, but sometimes a single example can prove that a generalization is not always true. Proving a generalization to be false is easier than proving it to be true. 9E/M5*
 * An analogy has some likenesses to but also some differences from the real thing. 9E/M6
 * Reasoning by similarities can suggest ideas to consider but can't prove them one way or the other. 9E/M7 (BSL)

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**10. Historical Perspectives**
A. Displacing the Earth from the Center of the Universe B. Understanding Fire C. Discovering Germs D. Harnessing Power Displacing the Earth from the Center of the Universe" title="Anchor: Displacing the Earth from the Center of the Universe "/> A. [|Displacing the Earth from the Center of the Universe] B. [|Understanding Fire]  C. [|Discovering Germs]  D. [|Harnessing Power]
 * Because every object is moving relative to some other object, no object has a unique claim to be at rest. Therefore, the idea of absolute motion or rest is misleading. 10A/M1*
 * Telescopes reveal that there are many more stars in the night sky than are evident to the unaided eye, the surface of the moon has many craters and mountains, the sun has dark spots, and Jupiter and some other planets have their own moons. 10A/M2
 * More than 2000 years ago, Greek philosophers formulated the idea of atoms as being simple particles beyond the reach of human senses and with the existence of a void between them. 10F/M1a*
 * Aristotle and other thinkers held that four elements (fire, air, water, and earth) composed all of matter. While the idea of atoms received little attention, Aristotle's four elements became the dominant idea. 10F/M1b*
 * Antoine Lavoisier's work was based on the idea that when materials react with each other, many changes can take place but that in every case the total amount of mass afterward is the same as before. He successfully tested the concept of conservation of mass by conducting a series of experiments in which he carefully measured all the substances involved in burning, including the gases used and those given off. As a result, the phlogiston theory was replaced by a theory based on the role of oxygen in burning. 10F/M4*
 * Ancient civilizations in China, India, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean developed explanations about matter not by experimentation but by observing the natural world and by using logic and rational thought. 10F/M6
 * Up until the 1700s, the prevailing idea was that materials contained a substance called phlogiston, which had mass, and that when an object burned, it gave off phlogiston, which carried away the mass. This view confirmed what people saw: When a piece of wood was burned, all that was left was a residue of ashes that had far less mass than the wood. 10F/M7 (SFAA)
 * Throughout history, people have created explanations for disease. Some have held that disease has supernatural causes. Others have used careful observation and reasoning to propose natural causes. 10I/M1*
 * French chemist Louis Pasteur demonstrated that spoilage and fermentation occur when microorganisms enter from the air, multiply rapidly, and produce waste products. He showed that spoilage could be avoided by keeping germs out or by destroying them with heat. 10I/M2bc*
 * German physician Robert Koch used a set of criteria to evaluate whether specific germs caused anthrax. He and others then used the criteria to identify the germs that cause numerous other diseases. 10I/M2d*
 * Pasteur found that infection by disease organisms (germs) caused the body to build up an immunity against subsequent infection by the same organisms. He then produced vaccines that would induce the body to build immunity to a disease without actually causing the disease itself. 10I/M3*
 * Investigations of the germ theory by Pasteur, Koch, and others in the 19th century firmly established the modern idea that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. Acceptance of the germ theory has led to changes in health practices. 10I/M4*
 * In medicine, as in other fields of science, discoveries are sometimes made unexpectedly, even by accident. But knowledge and creative insight are usually required to recognize the meaning of the unexpected. 10I/M5
 * The improvement of microscope lenses and design in the 1600s led to discovery of a vast new world of microscopically small plants and animals, among them bacteria and yeasts. Because most microorganisms do not cause disease, they are present even in healthy individuals. Therefore, the discovery of those microorganisms did not suggest what effects they might have on humans and other organisms. 10I/M6 (SFAA)
 * Current health practices emphasize sanitation, the safe handling of food and water, the pasteurization of milk, isolation, and aseptic surgical techniques to keep germs out of the body; vaccinations to strengthen the body's immune system against subsequent infection by the same kind of microorganisms; and antibiotics and other chemicals and processes to destroy microorganisms. 10I/M7 (BSL)
 * After the discovery of germs, biologists turned to the identification and investigation of microorganisms, discovering thousands of different bacteria, viruses, yeasts, and parasites and gaining a deeper understanding of the interactions between organisms. 10I/M8 (SFAA)
 * In the 1800s, new machinery and steam engines to drive them made it possible to manufacture goods in factories, using fuels as a source of energy. In the factory system, workers, materials, and energy could be brought together efficiently. 10J/M1*
 * The invention of the steam engine was at the center of the Industrial Revolution. It converted the chemical energy stored in wood and coal into motion energy. The steam engine was widely used to solve the urgent problem of pumping water out of coal mines. As improved by James Watt, Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, it was soon used to move coal; drive manufacturing machinery; and power locomotives, ships, and even the first automobiles. 10J/M2*

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**11. Common Themes**
A. Systems B. Models C. Constancy and Change D. Scale

A. [|Systems]
 * A system can include processes as well as things. 11A/M1
 * Thinking about things as systems means looking for how every part relates to others. The output from one part of a system (which can include material, energy, or information) can become the input to other parts. Such feedback can serve to control what goes on in the system as a whole. 11A/M2
 * Any system is usually connected to other systems, both internally and externally. Thus a system may be thought of as containing subsystems and as being a sub-system of a larger system. 11A/M3
 * Some portion of the output of a system may be fed back to that system's input. 11A/M4 (SFAA)
 * Systems are defined by placing boundaries around collections of interrelated things to make them easier to study. Regardless of where the boundaries are placed, a system still interacts with its surrounding environment. Therefore, when studying a system, it is important to keep track of what enters or leaves the system. 11A/M5 (SFAA)

B. [|Models]
 * Models are often used to think about processes that happen too slowly, too quickly, or on too small a scale to observe directly. They are also used for processes that are too vast, too complex, or too dangerous to study. 11B/M1*
 * Mathematical models can be displayed on a computer and then modified to see what happens. 11B/M2
 * Different models can be used to represent the same thing. What model to use depends on its purpose. 11B/M3*
 * Simulations are often useful in modeling events and processes. 11B/M4 (BSL)
 * The usefulness of a model depends on how closely its behavior matches key aspects of what is being modeled. The only way to determine the usefulness of a model is to compare its behavior to the behavior of the real-world object, event, or process being modeled. 11B/M5
 * A model can sometimes be used to get ideas about how the thing being modeled actually works, but there is no guarantee that these ideas are correct if they are based on the model alone. 11B/M6 (SFAA)

C. [|Constancy and Change]
 * A system may stay the same because nothing is influencing it or the influences on it are balanced. 11C/M2*
 * Many systems contain feedback mechanisms that serve to keep changes within certain limits. 11C/M3*
 * Symbolic equations can be used to summarize how the quantity of something changes over time or in response to other changes. 11C/M4
 * Cycles, such as the seasons or body temperature, can be described by what their cycle length or frequency is, what their highest and lowest values are, and when these values occur. Different cycles range from many years down to a fraction of a second. 11C/M6*
 * Cyclic patterns evident in past events can be used to make predictions about future events. However, these predictions may not always match what actually happens. 11C/M7
 * The way some systems behave is so erratic that patterns of change are not apparent. 11C/M8
 * Small differences in how things start out can sometimes produce large differences in how they end up. Some events are so sensitive to small differences in initial conditions that their outcomes cannot be predicted. 11C/M9
 * Trends based on what has happened in the past can be used to make predictions about what things will be like in the future. However, these predictions may not always match what actually happens. 11C/M10
 * The amount of something in a system may stay the same because nothing is entering or leaving the system or because something is being added to the system at the same rate as it is leaving the system. 11C/M11

D. [|Scale]
 * Some properties of an object depend on its length, some depend on its area, and some depend on its volume. 11D/M1*
 * As the complexity of any system increases, gaining an understanding of it depends increasingly on summaries, such as averages and ranges, and on descriptions of typical examples of that system. 11D/M2
 * Natural phenomena often involve sizes, durations, and speeds that are extremely small or extremely large. These phenomena may be difficult to appreciate because they involve magnitudes far outside human experience. 11D/M3

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**12. Habits of Mind**
A. Values and Attitudes B. Computation and Estimation C. Manipulation and Observation D. Communication Skills E. Critical-Response Skills  A. [|Values and Attitudes]  B. [|Computation and Estimation]  C. [|Manipulation and Observation]  D. [|Communication Skills]  E. [|Critical-Response Skills]
 * Hypotheses are valuable, even if they turn out not to be true, if they lead to fruitful investigations. 12A/M2
 * Often different explanations can be given for the same observations, and it is not always possible to tell which one is correct. 12A/M3*
 * Find what part one number is of another and express it as a fraction or a percentage. 12B/M1a*
 * Find what number is a given percentage of another number. 12B/M1b*
 * Use, interpret, and compare numbers in several equivalent forms such as integers, fractions, decimals, and percents. 12B/M2
 * Calculate the circumferences and areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles, and the volumes of rectangular solids. 12B/M3
 * Find the mean, median, and mode of a set of data. 12B/M4*
 * Estimate distances and travel times from maps and the actual size of objects from scale drawings. 12B/M5
 * Insert instructions into computer spreadsheet cells to program arithmetic calculations. 12B/M6
 * Use the units of the inputs to a calculation to determine what units (such as seconds, square inches, or dollars per tankful) should be used in expressing an answer. 12B/M7a*
 * Convert quantities expressed in one unit of measurement into another unit of measurement when necessary to solve a real-world problem. 12B/M7b*
 * Decide what degree of precision is adequate and round off the result of calculator operations to enough significant figures to reasonably reflect those of the inputs. 12B/M8
 * Express numbers like 100, 1,000, and 1,000,000 as powers of ten. 12B/M9
 * Estimate probabilities of outcomes in familiar situations on the basis of history or the number of possible outcomes. 12B/M10
 * Use calculators to compare amounts proportionally. 12C/M1
 * Use computer databases to store and retrieve information. 12C/M2*
 * Make accurate measurements of length, volume, weight, elapsed time, rates, and temperature by using appropriate devices. 12C/M3*
 * Analyze simple mechanical devices and describe what the various parts are for; estimate what the effect of making a change in one part of a device would have on the device as a whole. 12C/M5*
 * Make safe electrical connections with various plugs, sockets, and terminals. 12C/M6 (BSL)
 * Select the proper tool for completing a particular task. 12C/M7
 * Maintain tools and simple devices so they are in good working order. 12C/M8
 * Organize information in simple tables and graphs and identify relationships they reveal. 12D/M1
 * Read simple tables and graphs produced by others and describe in words what they show. 12D/M2
 * Locate information in reference books, back issues of newspapers and magazines, compact disks, and computer databases. 12D/M3
 * Understand oral, written, or visual presentations that incorporate circle charts, bar and line graphs, two-way data tables, diagrams, and symbols. 12D/M4*
 * Find and describe locations on maps with rectangular and polar coordinates. 12D/M5
 * Present a brief scientific explanation orally or in writing that includes a claim and the evidence and reasoning that supports the claim. 12D/M6
 * Seek to gain a better understanding of a scientific idea by asking for an explanation, restating an explanation in a different way, and asking questions when some aspect of an explanation is not clear. 12D/M7
 * Explain a scientific idea to someone else, checking understanding and responding to questions. 12D/M8
 * Prepare a visual presentation to aid in explaining procedures or ideas. 12D/M9
 * Describe spatial relationships in geometric terms such as perpendicular, parallel, tangent, similar, congruent, and symmetrical. 12D/M10 (BSL)
 * Interpret simple symbolic equations. 12D/M11**
 * Question claims based on vague attributions (such as "Leading doctors say…") or on statements made by celebrities or others outside the area of their particular expertise. 12E/M1
 * Compare consumer products and consider reasonable personal trade-offs among them on the basis of features, performance, durability, and cost. 12E/M2
 * Be skeptical of claims based on very small samples or biased samples. 12E/M3*
 * Notice and criticize the reasoning in arguments in which fact and opinion are intermingled. 12E/M5a
 * Notice and criticize the reasoning in arguments in which the claims are not consistent with the evidence given. 12E/M5b*
 * Be skeptical of claims based only on analogies. 12E/M5c*
 * Notice and criticize the reasoning in arguments in which no mention is made of whether control groups are used or whether the control groups are very much like the experimental group. 12E/M5d*
 * Be skeptical of arguments in which all members of a group (such as teenagers or chemists) are implied to have nearly identical characteristics that differ from those of other groups. 12E/M5e

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